The history of the computer prepared: Ekaterina Korotich

11th grade student

The first devices for calculations were probably the well-known counting sticks, which are still used today in the elementary grades of many schools for learning to count. The first devices for the calculations were probably the well-known counting sticks, which today are still used in the elementary grades of many schools to the account.

When people got fed up with counting by bending fingers and shifting sticks, they invented abacus (counts). When people got tired of counting by bending fingers and shifting sticks, they invented abacus (counts).

The number of counted objects corresponded to the number of moved knuckles of this tool.

In 1623, Wilhelm Schikard invented Counting Clock, the first mechanical calculator that could perform four arithmetic operations. The device was counted as a clock because, as in real watches, the mechanism was based on the use of sprockets and gears. Practical use of this invention was found in the hands of Schikard's friend, philosopher and astronomer Johannes Kepler. In 1623, Wilhelm Schikard invented “Counting Clock” - the first mechanical calculator that could perform four arithmetic operations. The device was counted as a clock because, as in real watches, the mechanism was based on the use of sprockets and gears. Practical use of this invention was found in the hands of Schikard's friend, philosopher and astronomer Johannes Kepler.

This was followed by the machines of Blaise Pascal (Pascalina, 1642) and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Around 1820, he created the first successful, mass-produced mechanical calculator - the Thomas Arithmometer, which could add, subtract, multiply and divide. Basically, it was based on the work of Leibniz. Decimal calculators were used until the 1970s, followed by the machines of Blaise Pascal (Pascalina, 1642) and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Around 1820, he created the first successful, mass-produced mechanical calculator - the Thomas Arithmometer, which could add, subtract, multiply and divide. Basically, it was based on the work of Leibniz. Decimal calculators were used until the 1970s.

Pascalina

In 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard developed a loom in which the embroidered pattern was determined by punch cards. A series of cards could be replaced, and the change of pattern did not require changes in the mechanics of the machine. This was an important milestone in the history of programming. In 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard developed a weaving machine in which the embroidered pattern was determined by punch cards. A series of cards could be replaced, and the change of pattern did not require changes in the mechanics of the machine. This was an important milestone in the history of programming.

In 1838, Charles Babbage moved from developing a Difference machine to designing a more sophisticated analytical machine, the programming principles of which directly go back to Jacquard punch cards. In 1838, Charles Babbage went from developing a Difference machine to designing a more complex analytical machine, the programming principles of which directly go back to punched cards Jacquard.

In 1890, the U.S. Census Bureau used punch cards and sorting mechanisms developed by Herman Hollerith to process the data stream of a 10-year census. In 1890, the U.S. Census Bureau used punch cards and sorting mechanisms developed by Herman Hollerith to process the flow of data of a 10-year census.
  Hollerith eventually became the core of IBM. This corporation has developed punch card technology into a powerful tool for business data processing and has released an extensive line of specialized equipment for recording them. By 1950, IBM technology became ubiquitous in industry and government. The warning printed on most cards, “Do not fold, twist, or tear,” became the motto of the post-war era.

Slide number 10

Slide №11

By the year 1900, early mechanical calculators, cash registers, and calculating machines were redesigned using electric motors, representing the position of the variable as the position of the gear. Since the 1930s, companies such as Friden, Marchant, and Monro began producing desktop mechanical calculators that could add, subtract, multiply, and divide. The word “computer” (literally, “calculator”) was the name of the job - it was people who used calculators to perform mathematical calculations. By the year 1900, early mechanical calculators, cash registers and calculating machines were redesigned using electric motors with a representation of the position of the variable like gear position. Since the 1930s, companies such as Friden, Marchant, and Monro began producing desktop mechanical calculators that could add, subtract, multiply, and divide. The word "computer" (literally - "calculator") was called a post - these were people who used calculators to perform mathematical calculations.

Slide №12

In 1948, Curta appeared - a small mechanical calculator that could be held in one hand.

Slide number 13

In the 1950s and 1960s, several brands of similar devices appeared on the western market. The first fully electronic desktop calculator was the British ANITA Mk. VII.

Slide №14

In 1936, while working in isolation in Nazi Germany, Konrad Zuse began work on his first Z-series computer with memory and (so far limited) programming ability. Created mainly on a mechanical basis, but already on the basis of binary logic, the Z1 model, completed in 1938, did not work reliably enough, due to the insufficient accuracy of the components. In 1936, working in isolation in Nazi Germany Conrad Zuse began work on his first Z-series computer with memory and (so far limited) programming ability. Created mainly on a mechanical basis, but already on the basis of binary logic, the Z1 model, completed in 1938, did not work reliably enough, due to the insufficient accuracy of the components.

Slide №15

Zuse's next car, the Z3, was completed in 1941. It was built on telephone relays and worked quite satisfactorily. Thus, Z3 became the first working computer controlled by the program. In many ways, the Z3 was like modern cars; the next Zuse machine, the Z3, was completed in 1941. It was built on telephone relays and worked quite satisfactorily. Thus, Z3 became the first working computer controlled by the program. In many ways, the Z3 was like modern cars.

Slide №16

In 1939, John Vincent Atanasov and Clifford Berry of Iowa State University developed the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC). It was the world's first electronic digital computer. The design consisted of more than 300 electric vacuum tubes; a rotating drum was used as a memory. Although the ABC was not programmable, it was the first to use electronic tubes in an adder. In 1939, John Vincent Atanasov and Clifford Berry of Iowa State University developed the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC). It was the world's first electronic digital computer. The design consisted of more than 300 electric vacuum tubes; a rotating drum was used as a memory. Despite the fact that the ABC machine was not programmable, it was the first to use electronic lamps in the adder.

Slide №17

The American ENIAC, often called the first general-purpose electronic computer, has publicly proven the applicability of electronics for large-scale computing. This was a key moment in the development of computers, primarily due to the huge increase in computing speed, but also because of the opportunities for miniaturization. Created under the leadership of John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert, this car was 1000 times faster than all the other cars of that time. The development of ENIAC lasted from 1943 to 1945. The American ENIAC, often called the first general-purpose electronic computer, has publicly proven the applicability of electronics for large-scale computing. This was a key moment in the development of computers, primarily due to the huge increase in computing speed, but also because of the opportunities for miniaturization. Created under the leadership of John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert, this car was 1000 times faster than all the other cars of that time. The development of ENIAK lasted from 1943 to 1945.

Slide №18

The ENIAC was able to perform several thousand operations per second for several hours, until the next failure due to a burned out lamp. The ENIAC was able to perform several thousand operations per second for several hours, until the next failure due to a burned out lamp.

Slide №19

The first working machine with von Neumann architecture was the Manchester "Baby" - Small-Scale Experimental Machine (Small experimental machine), created at the University of Manchester in 1948; in 1949, it was followed by the computer of Manchester Mark I. The first working machine with von Neumann architecture was the Manchester "Baby" - Small-Scale Experimental Machine (Small experimental machine), created at the University of Manchester in 1948; in 1949, the computer was followed by Manchester Mark I.

Slide №20

In 1955, Maurice Wilkes invented microprogramming, a principle that was later widely used in microprocessors of a wide variety of computers. Microprogramming allows you to define or expand the basic set of instructions using built-in programs called microprograms. In 1955, Maurice Wilkes invented microprogramming, a principle that was later widely used in microprocessors of various computers. Firmware allows you to define or expand the basic set of commands using the built-in programs, which are called firmware.

Slide №21

The next major step in the history of computer technology was the invention of the transistor in 1947. They have become a replacement for fragile and energy-intensive lamps. Transistor computers are usually referred to as the “second generation” that dominated the 1950s and early 1960s. Thanks to transistors and printed circuit boards, a significant reduction in the size and volume of energy consumed was achieved, as well as an increase in reliability. However, second-generation computers were still quite expensive and therefore were used only by universities, governments, large corporations. The next major step in the history of computer technology was the invention of the transistor in 1947. They have become a replacement for fragile and energy-intensive lamps. Transistor computers are usually referred to as the “second generation” that dominated the 1950s and early 1960s. Thanks to transistors and printed circuit boards, a significant reduction in the size and volume of energy consumed was achieved, as well as an increase in reliability. However, second-generation computers were still quite expensive and therefore were used only by universities, governments, large corporations.

Slide №22

"Setun" was the first computer based on ternary logic, developed in the Soviet Union in 1958. "Setun" was the first computer based on ternary logic, developed in 1958 in the Soviet Union.

Slide №23

The rapid growth in the use of computers began with the so-called. "3rd generation" of computers. The beginning of this was the invention of integrated circuits, which were independently invented by Nobel laureate Jack Kilby and Robert Neuss. This later led to the invention of the microprocessor by Ted Hoff (Intel). The booming growth in the use of computers began with the so-called "3rd generation" of computers. The beginning of this was the invention of integrated circuits, which were independently invented by Nobel laureate Jack Kilby and Robert Neuss. This later led to the invention of the microprocessor by Ted Hoff (Intel).

Slide №24

The advent of microprocessors led to the development of microcomputers - small inexpensive computers that small companies or individuals could own. Microcomputers, the fourth generation, the first of which appeared in the 1970s, became ubiquitous in the 1980s and later. Steve Wozniak, one of the founders of Apple Computer, became known as the developer of the first mass home computer, and later the first personal computer. Computers based on microcomputer architecture, with capabilities added from their larger cousins, now dominate most market segments. The advent of microprocessors has led to the development of microcomputers - small, low-cost computers that small companies or individuals could own. Microcomputers, the fourth generation, the first of which appeared in the 1970s, became ubiquitous in the 1980s and later. Steve Wozniak, one of the founders of Apple Computer, became known as the developer of the first mass home computer, and later the first personal computer. Computers based on microcomputer architecture, with features added from their larger counterparts, now dominate most market segments.

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\u003e\u003e Informatics: Classification of peripheral annexes. History of educational technology.

  The history of computer development

Content:

1. What is a computer?
2. V - VI century BC to the XX century
3. first-generation computers
4. second generation computers
5. third generation computers
6. fourth-generation computers
7. Test for knowledge of the history of computer development
8. Sources of information

  Computer \u003d computer

Electronic computer (computer)

Computer (English word) - calculate

A computer is a device of interconnected technical devices that perform automated information processing.

  V - VI century BC

The history of computing is deeply rooted in the ages as well as the development of mankind.

One of the first devices (V-VI centuries BC) to facilitate calculations can be considered a special board for calculations, called "abacus".

  XV century AD

In ancient Russia, a device similar to an abacus called “Russian shot” was used when counting. In the XVII century, this device has already acquired the form of the usual Russian account.

Scores that appeared in the XV century consist in a special place, because use a decimal, not a five-decimal number system, like all other abacuses.

The main merit of the inventors of the abacus is the creation of a positional number representation system.

  XVII century

Blaise PASCAL
Blasé paskal
(19.06.1623 – 19.08.1662)

At the beginning of the XVII century, when mathematics began to play a key role in science, the French mathematician and physicist Blaise Pascal created a “summing” machine, called Pascalina, which, in addition to addition, also performed subtraction.

  XVII century

Gottfried Wilhelm LEIBNITZ
Gottfried wilhelm leibnitz
(1.07.1646 – 14.11.1716)

The first arithmetic machine that performs all four arithmetic operations was created in 1673 by the German mathematician Leibniz - a mechanical arithmometer.

Charles Babbage
(26.12.1791 – 18.10.1871)

In 1812, the English mathematician and economist Charles Babbage began work on the creation of a "difference" machine, which was not just to perform arithmetic operations, but to carry out calculations using a program that defines a specific function.

For program control, punch cards were used - cardboard cards with holes punched into them (perforations).

  First-generation computer 1948 - 1958

- Elemental base - electronic vacuum tubes.
- Dimensions - in the form of cabinets and occupied the engine rooms.
- Performance - 10 - 100 thousand op./s.
- Operation is very difficult.
- Programming is a laborious process.
- The structure of the computer is based on a strict principle.

  XX century

John (Janos) von NEUMAN
(28.12.1903 – 8.02.1957)

The first ENIAK computer (digital integrator and computer, tube) was created in the USA after the Second World War in 1946. The group of creators of this computer included one of the most prominent scientists of the 20th century. John von Neumann.

According to Neumann's principles, the construction and operation of universal programmable computers is three main components: an arithmetic device, an input-output device, a memory for storing data and programs.

  1950s

Under the guidance of B.I. Rameev, the first general-purpose universal computers in the USSR Ural-1, Ural-2, Ural-3, Ural-4 (tube) were developed. And in the 60s, the first family of software and structurally compatible universal general purpose computers Ural-11, Ural-14, Ural-16 (semiconductor) was created in the USSR. B.I. Rameev, V.I.Burkov, A.S. Gorshkov took part in the project.

  XX century

Sergey Alekseevich LEBEDEV
(2.11.1902 - 3.07.1974)

The development of computers in the USSR is connected with the name of academician Sergei Alekseevich Lebedev. In 1950, the Institute of Precision Mechanics and Computer Engineering (ITM and VT Academy of Sciences of the USSR) organized a department of digital computers for the development and creation of large computers. This work was led by S. A. Lebedev, under whose leadership the following were created: in 1951 in Kiev MESM (small electronic computer) and 1953 in Moscow BESM (large electronic computer).

  MESM (Small Electronic Calculating Machine)

  Second generation computer 1959 - 1967

- Elemental base - active and passive elements.

- Performance - hundreds of thousands - 1 million op./s.
- Operation - simplified.
- Programming - algorithmic languages \u200b\u200bappeared.
- Computer structure - firmware control method.

  1960 year

Creation of the first in the USSR semiconductor control machine for a wide use Dnepr, project managers - V.M. Glushkov and B.N. Malinovsky. The computer included analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters. Produced over 10 years.

  1959-1965 years

Development of the first machines for engineering calculations in the USSR Promin and Mir - predecessors of future personal computers, project managers V.M. Glushkov and S. B. Pogrebinsky.

  Third-generation computer 1968 - 1973

- Element base - integrated circuits, large integrated circuits (IC, LSI).
- Dimensions - the same type of rack, requiring a machine room.
- Performance - hundreds of thousands - millions op./s.
- Operation - repairs are made promptly.
- Programming - similar to the II generation.
- The structure of computers - the principle of modularity and backbone.
- There are displays, magnetic disks.

  Fourth-generation computers from 1974 to the present day

- Element base - ultra-large integrated circuits (VLSI).
- Creation of multiprocessor computing systems.
- Creation of cheap and compact microcomputers and personal computers and computer networks based on them.

In 1971, Intel (USA) created the first microprocessor - a programmable logic device manufactured using VLSI technology

  The first personal computers

In 1981, IBM Corporation (International Business Machines) (USA) introduced the first personal computer model, the IBM 5150, which marked the beginning of the era of modern computers.

1983 Apple Computers built the Lisa personal computer, the first office mouse-controlled office computer.

1984 Apple Computer launches Macintosh on 32-bit Motorola 68000 processor

  Test for knowledge of the history of computer development

1. The first tube computer was called:
  a) Ural - 11; b) ENIAC; c) the Dnieper.

2. Which of the listed scientists is not connected with the history of the creation of computers:
a) Charles Babbage; b) Isaac Newton; c) Blaise Pascal.

3. The first computers were created in the XX century ...
a) in the 40s; b) in the 60s; c) in the 70s.

4. The main elemental base of fourth-generation computers are:
  a) electromechanical circuits; b) VLSI. c) vacuum tubes;

You can go to the presentation by clicking on the text "Presentation" and installing Microsoft PowerPoint

Reported by the teacher of Informatics at the International Lyceum "Grand" Cheban L.I.

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Presentation on the topic:

Slide number 1

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Slide number 2

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Counting and decisive means before the advent of computers. The history of computing goes deep back centuries, as well as the development of mankind. Accumulation of reserves, sharing of production, exchange - all such actions are associated with the account. To count people used their own fingers, pebbles, sticks and nodules. The need to find solutions to more and more complex and complex tasks and, as a result, increasingly complex and lengthy calculations, put the person before the need to find ways, invent devices that could help him in this. Historically, different countries have their own monetary units, measures of weight, length, volume and distance. To transfer from one measurement system to another, calculations were required that most often could be performed by specially trained people who were sometimes invited from other countries. This naturally led to inventions that help counting.

Slide number 3

Description of the slide:

One of the first devices (V-VI centuries BC) to facilitate calculations can be considered a special board for calculations, called "abacus". Calculations on it were carried out by moving pebbles or bones into the recesses of boards made of bronze, stone or ivory. Over time, these boards began to be drawn into several strips and columns. In Greece, the abacus already existed in the V century BC. e., the Japanese called it “Serobyan”, the Chinese called “Supanpan.” In ancient Russia, a device similar to an abacus called “Russian shot” was used in the calculation. In the XVII century, this device has already acquired the form of the usual Russian account.

Slide number 4

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Slide number 5

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At the beginning of the XVII century, when mathematics began to play a key role in science, the need for the invention of a calculating machine was increasingly felt. And in the middle of the century, a young French mathematician and physicist Blaise Pascal created a “summing” machine, called Pascalina, which, in addition to addition, also performed subtraction.

Slide number 6

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In 1812, the English mathematician and economist Charles Babbage began work on the creation of the so-called "difference" machine, which, according to his intentions, was not just to perform arithmetic operations, but to carry out calculations using a program that defines a certain function. Babbage took a gear wheel as the main element of his car to memorize one digit of the number (there were 18 of all such wheels). By 1822, the scientist built a small working model and calculated a table of squares on it.

Slide number 7

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The electromechanical stage in the development of computer technology The electro-mechanical stage in the development of VT was the least long and covers only about 60 years - from the first tabulator G. Hollerith (1887) to the first ENIAC computer (1945). The prerequisites for creating projects at this stage were both the need for mass calculations (economics, statistics, management and planning, etc.) and the development of applied electrical engineering (electric drives and electromechanical relays), which made it possible to create electromechanical computing devices.

Slide number 8

Description of the slide:

The first statistical tabulator was built by the American Herman Hollerith, in order to expedite the processing of the census results, which was carried out in the USA in 1890. Then, tests were carried out at the census bureau, and the Hollerite tabulator in competition with several other systems was recognized as the best. After the census, Hollerith was awarded several prizes and received the title of professor at Columbia University. Hollerith organized the Tabulating Machine Company (TMC), a company that sold them to railway departments and government agencies. Over the years, it underwent a number of changes - mergers and renaming. Since 1924, the company Hollerita became known as IBM.

Slide number 9

Description of the slide:

Z1 - a computing device created in 1938, was the first programmable computing machine of the German engineer Konrad Zuse. This is a binary computer with data input using the keyboard, in decimal notation in the form of floating point numbers. The main difference from the more well-known Z3 computer (1941) was the lack of square root calculation.

Slide number 10

Description of the slide:

In 1939, George Stiebitz and Samuel Williams created the Complex Number Calculator - a calculator that adds complex numbers, as well as performing subtraction, multiplication and division. The calculator was the first machine to which there was remote access via telephone lines from three keypads, but they could only be used in shared time mode. In a way, it was an attempt to organize a local network. Later, the creators renamed their brainchild to Model I Relay Calculator.

Slide number 11

Description of the slide:

In 1939, John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry built the first electronic lamp computing machine. The analogue of the 25-bit adder had recoverable memory in the form of batteries with update circuits on vacuum tubes, but did not have a device for entering information. To carry out the calculations, the user had to connect the wires directly to the battery - the data was immediately entered into the memory.

Slide number 12

Description of the slide:

Mark-1 is being developed by IBM by order of the US Navy to calculate ballistic tables. The Mark-1 is based on Charles Babbage's description of his Analytical Engine. The dimensions of the Mark-1 are 17 m in length and 2.5 m in height. The wires connecting its 750 thousand parts have a total length of more than 800 km. The program is entered from punched tape, and data from punched cards. The computer has an electromechanical relay and works very fast at that time - it takes 0.3 seconds to add and subtract two numbers and 3 seconds to multiply.

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ENIAK (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator) is the first large-scale electronic digital computer that could be reprogrammed to solve a full range of tasks. Built in 1946 by order of the US Army at the Ballistic Research Laboratory for calculating shooting tables. Launched on February 14, 1946, computer architecture was developed in 1943 by John Presper Eckert and John William Mokley, scientists from the University of Pennsylvania. In ENIAC, vacuum tubes were used as the basis of the component base. In total, the complex included 17,468 lamps, 7,200 silicon diodes, 1,500 relays, 70,000 resistors and 10,000 capacitors. Power consumption - 150 kW. Computing power - 300 operations of multiplication or 5000 operations of addition per second. Weight - 27 tons. The calculations were made in decimal system.

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Tube computers The first generation (1945-1954) - computers with electronic tubes (like those that were in old TVs). These are prehistoric times, the era of the emergence of computer technology. Most of the machines of the first generation were experimental devices and were built in order to verify certain theoretical principles. The weight and size of these computer dinosaurs, which often required separate buildings for themselves, has long become a legend. Claude Shannon - the creator of the theory of information, Alan Turing - the mathematician who developed the theory of programs and algorithms, and John von Neumann - the author of the design of computing devices, which still underlies most computers, are considered to be the founders of computer science. In the same years, another new science related to computer science appeared - cybernetics, the science of management as one of the main information processes. The founder of cybernetics is the American mathematician Norbert Wiener.

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Transistor computers In the second generation of computers (1955-1964), transistors were used instead of electronic tubes, and magnetic cores and magnetic drums, the distant ancestors of modern hard drives, were used as memory devices. All this made it possible to sharply reduce the size and cost of computers, which were then first built for sale. But the main achievements of this era belong to the field of programs. On the second generation of computers for the first time appeared what today is called the operating system. Then the first high-level languages \u200b\u200bwere developed - Fortran, Algol, Kobol. These two important improvements have greatly simplified and accelerated the writing of computer programs; programming, while remaining a science, acquires the features of a craft. The scope of application of computers has expanded. Computers found application in planning and management, and some large firms even computerized their bookkeeping, anticipating fashion for twenty years.

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The era of integrated circuits In the third generation of computers (1965-1974) integrated circuits were first used - entire devices and nodes of tens or hundreds of transistors made on a single semiconductor chip (what are now called microcircuits). At the same time, a semiconductor memory appears, which is used throughout the day in personal computers as operational. In these years, computer production is gaining industrial scope. IBM, which made its way to the leader, was the first to implement the family of computers - a series of computers fully compatible with each other, from the smallest, the size of a small cabinet (they weren’t even smaller then), to the most powerful and expensive models. The most common in those years was the IBM System / 360 family, on the basis of which the EU series of computers was developed in the USSR.

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The era of integrated circuits As early as the beginning of the 60s, the first minicomputers appeared - small, low-power computers, affordable for small companies or laboratories. Minicomputers represented the first step towards personal computers, trial samples of which were released only in the mid-70s. The well-known family of PDP minicomputers from Digital Equipment served as a prototype for the Soviet SM series of machines. Meanwhile, the number of elements and connections between them that fit in one chip was constantly growing, and in the 70s, integrated circuits already contained thousands of transistors. This made it possible to combine most of the computer components in a single small detail - which was done by Intel in 1971, releasing the first microprocessor, which was intended for the desktop calculators that had just appeared.

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Development of microprocessor technology Since the mid-70s, fundamental innovations in computer science have become less and less. Progress is mainly on the path of developing what has already been invented and invented - primarily by increasing the power and miniaturization of the element base and the computers themselves. Since the beginning of the 80s, thanks to the advent of personal computers, computer technology has become truly mass and public . There is a paradoxical situation: despite the fact that personal and minicomputers still lag behind large machines in all respects, the lion's share of the innovations of the last decade - the graphical user interface, new peripherals, global networks - owe their appearance and development to this "frivolous" technique. Large computers and supercomputers, of course, are far from extinct and continue to evolve. But now they no longer dominate the computer arena, as it was before.

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Development of microprocessor technology In 1989, Intel developed a new development - the Intel-80486 microprocessor (Intel-80486DX). This processor marked the beginning of the fifth generation. This processor was fully compatible with a PC of the Intel-80x86 family, in addition, it contained a mathematical coprocessor and 8 KB of cache memory. This processor was more advanced than the Intel-80386 microprocessor, its clock frequency was 33 MHz. In 1991, Intel introduced the Intel-80486SX processor, which lacked a mathematical coprocessor. In 1992, the Intel-80486DX2 processor, operating at double the clock frequency - 66 MHz. Subsequently, processors with a clock frequency of 100 MHz came out.

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The development of microprocessor technology In 1993, Intel began industrial production of a new processor - Intel Pentium (Intel did not assign it the number 80586). The first models worked at a clock frequency of 60 and 66 MHz and combined up to 3.3 million transistors. Pentium is the first 64-bit superscalar processor with a RISC core, manufactured using 0.8-micron BiCMOS technology. Its basis is two five-stage conveyors that allow you to execute two commands in one cycle. One pipeline performed any operations, both with integer and floating-point numbers, the second executes part of integer commands.

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Development of microprocessor technology All arithmetic operations - addition, subtraction, multiplication and division - are implemented in hardware. The combination of these solutions dramatically increased processor performance, speeding up calculations by reducing access to RAM. They provide two internal cache buffers - 8 Kbytes for commands and data, which allowed the containers of commands to work not only for reading but also for writing. The next novelty is the branch prediction system, due to which the transition address is remembered during the transition in the memory area and, when the address is accessed again, the transition to this address is faster.

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The development of microprocessor technology Subsequently, models appeared with a frequency of 90 and 100 MHz. However, errors were soon discovered in the division device, and Intel had to publish a detailed description of this defect. After this scandal, almost all Pentium processors began to be tested, and BUG FREE! Appeared on the price lists, which literally can be translated as “error free”.

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Counting on fingers The finger counting is rooted in antiquity, meeting in one form or another among all peoples today. Well-known medieval mathematicians recommended finger counting as an aid, which allows for quite effective counting systems.

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Counting using objects For example, among the peoples of pre-Columbian America, nodular counting was very developed. Moreover, the nodule system also served as a kind of chronicles and annals, having a rather complex structure. However, using it required a good memory training. To make the counting process more convenient, a primitive man began to use other devices instead of fingers. The counting results were fixed in various ways: applying notches, counting sticks, nodules, etc.

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Abacus and abacus The account through grouping and shifting items was the forerunner of the abacus account - the most developed counting device of antiquity, preserved to this day in the form of various types of accounts. Abacus was the first developed calculating device in the history of mankind, the main difference of which from previous methods of calculations was the performance of calculations by digits. Well adapted to perform addition and subtraction operations, the abacus turned out to be an insufficiently effective device for performing multiplication and division operations.

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Abacus (V-IV century BC) Chinese abacus suan-pan Japanese abacus soroban Russian abacus

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The logarithms introduced in 1614 by J. Napier had a revolutionary effect on the entire subsequent development of the account, which was greatly facilitated by the appearance of a number of logarithmic tables calculated both by Napier himself and by a number of other calculators known at that time. Subsequently, a number of modifications of the logarithmic tables appear. However, in practical work the use of logarithmic tables has a number of inconveniences, therefore J. Napier proposed as an alternative method special counting sticks (later called Napier sticks), which made it possible to perform multiplication and division operations directly on the original numbers. Neper laid the basis of this method for the method of multiplication by a lattice. Along with the chopsticks, Neper proposed a counting board for performing operations of multiplication, division, squaring, and square rooting in a binary ss, thereby anticipating the advantages of such a number system for automating calculations. Logarithms served as the basis for creating a wonderful computing tool - a slide rule that has been serving engineering and technical workers around the world for more than 360 years. Napier sticks and slide rule

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In 1623, the German scientist Wilhelm Schikkard proposed his solution on the basis of a six-digit decimal computer, which also consisted of gears, designed to perform addition, subtraction, as well as tabular multiplication and division. 1642. The first really implemented and became famous mechanical digital computer device was Pascal, created by the French scientist Blaise Pascal. It was a six- or eight-bit device on gears, capable of summing and subtracting decimal numbers. Shikkard and Pascal's car

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1673. 30 years after Pascalina, the "arithmetic device" by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz appeared - a twelve-digit decimal device for performing arithmetic operations, including multiplication and division. The end of the XVIII century. Joseph Jacquard creates a loom with software control using punch cards. Gaspard de Proni is developing a new computing technology in three stages: developing a numerical method, drawing up a program of a sequence of arithmetic operations, performing calculations by arithmetic operations on numbers in accordance with the left program.

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Bebbage's brilliant idea was carried out by Howard Aiken, an American scientist who created in 1944 the first relay-mechanical computer in the United States. Its main blocks - arithmetic and memory were executed on gears. 1830-1846 Charles Babbage is developing a project for the Analytical Engine, a software-controlled mechanical universal digital computer. Separate machine components were created. Because of its bulkiness, the whole machine could not be created. Babbage Analytical Machine

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At the end of the XIX century. More sophisticated mechanical devices were created. The most important of these was a device developed by American Herman Hollerith. Its exclusivity consisted in the fact that the idea of \u200b\u200bpunch cards was first used in it and the calculations were carried out using electric current. In 1897, Hollerith organized a company, which later became known as IBM. The machine of Herman Hollerith The largest projects at the same time were carried out in Germany (C. Zuse) and the USA (D. Atanasov, G. Aiken and D. Stiblitz). These projects can be considered as direct predecessors of universal computers.

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1942-1943 In England, with the participation of Alan Turing, the Colossus computer was created. It already had 2,000 electronic lamps. The machine was intended to decrypt radiograms of the German Wehrmacht. 1943 Mark-1, the first software-controlled computer, was created under the leadership of American Howard Aiken, commissioned and supported by IBM. It was built on electromechanical relays, and the data processing program was introduced from punched tape. Colossus and Mark-1

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First-generation computers 1946 - 1958 The main element is an electronic lamp. Due to the fact that the height of the glass lamp is 7 cm, the cars were huge. Every 7-8 minutes one of the lamps failed, and since there were 15 to 20 thousand in the computer, it took a lot of time to find and replace a damaged lamp. The numbers were entered into machines using punch cards, and program control was carried out, for example, in ENIAC, using plugs and typesetting fields. When all the lamps were working, the engineering staff could configure ENIAC for some task by manually changing the connection of 6,000 wires.

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Machines of the first generation Machines of this generation: BESM, ENIAC, MESM, IBM-701, Arrow, M-2, M-3, Ural, Ural-2 , Minsk-1, Minsk-12, M-20. These machines occupied a large area and used a lot of electricity. Their speed did not exceed 2-3 thousand operations per second, the RAM did not exceed 2 Kb.

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Second-generation computers 1959 - 1967 The main element is semiconductor transistors. The first transistor was able to replace ~ 40 electronic tubes and operates at high speed. Magnetic tapes and magnetic cores were used as information carriers, high-performance devices for working with magnetic tapes, magnetic drums and the first magnetic disks appeared. They began to pay great attention to the creation of system software, compilers, and input-output tools.

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Second-generation machines In the USSR in 1967, the most powerful second-generation computer “BESM-6” (High-Speed \u200b\u200bElectronic Calculating Machine 6) was put into operation in Europe. Also at the same time, the Minsk-2, Ural-14 computers were created. The appearance of semiconductor elements in electronic circuits significantly increased the capacity of RAM, the reliability and speed of computers. The sizes, weight and power consumption decreased. The machines were designed to solve various labor-intensive scientific and technical problems, as well as to control technological processes in production.

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Third-generation computers 1968–1974 The main element is the integrated circuit. In 1958, Robert Neuss invented a small silicon integrated circuit in which dozens of transistors could be placed in a small area. One IC can replace tens of thousands of transistors. One crystal does the same job as the 30 ton Eniak. And a computer using IC achieves a performance of 10,000,000 operations per second. At the end of the 60s, a semiconductor memory appeared, which is still used in personal computers as operational. In 1964, IBM announced the creation of six models of the IBM 360 family (System360), which became the first computers of the third generation.

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Third generation cars. Third-generation machines have developed operating systems. They have multiprogramming capabilities, i.e. simultaneous execution of several programs. The operating system or the machine itself began to take on many tasks of managing memory, devices, and resources. Examples of third-generation machines are the IBM-360, IBM-370, EC computers (Unified Computer System), SM computers (Small Computer Family), and others. The speed of machines within the family varies from several tens of thousands to millions of operations per second. The memory capacity reaches several hundred thousand words.